In this event report, our newsletter editor Frances Lloyd recaps the talk by Professor Colin Kelcey about a traumatic but pivotal event in London’s history.
This was a talk by Colin Kelcey about five particular days in December 1952 when London was enveloped in smog and the city was at a standstill.
This was not the first episode of pollution where impacts on health were noted. In December 1930 in the Meuse Valley in Belgium there was an incident of fog which killed 63 people. Previously in 1911 in the same area a lot of cattle were killed and farmers found that they could only save them by moving them to higher ground – this had been realised from earlier smog events. Cows were like the canary in the mine, unusually sensitive to air pollution. Subsequently at a meeting there were ominous warnings about what could happen, it was said that if there was a similar event in London it could result in 3,200 deaths.
In 1952 in London there was heavy fog for five days in December. It caused a great deal of concern to Londoners but it was not until later that the true cost was realised. London was intensely populated with a lot of industry and had poorer air quality than other cities. It had suffered from poor air quality since the Middle Ages. Writers at the time referred to these fogs as ‘pea soupers’. Notable Victorian artists unwittingly captured fog in their pictures, for example Monet and Turner. There had been some improvements to air quality as the 1900s were entered. Coal was still a huge power source with coal burning power plants and it was used as a domestic fuel.
1952 was a very cold winter. The second world war had finished with resulting economic problems and coal was a valuable export. Low quality coal was used at home. Nutty slack, a cheap fuel consisting of slack (coal dust) and nuts or small lumps of coal, was commonly used in homes. Unlike coal this was not rationed and was promoted by the government. It caused a huge amount of air pollution.
On 5th December 1952 there was a complete lack of wind and high atmospheric pressure. Warm air rising from chimneys was pushed back down. Fog covered all but the tallest buildings. The fog was severe on the first day and worsened each day. Factories continued to pump out smoke – 1,000 tonnes of smoke particles and 2,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide were emitted each day of this period. Visibility was reduced to a few feet. According to many people the air was yellowish green in colour and smelt of rotten eggs. Face coverings were recommended and the Home Office issued them to certain groups, for example the police. Transport networks seized up with most buses stopped and planes cancelled (some planes were sent to places like Birmingham). On the roads traffic was very slow and there were multiple accidents. The underground was the only option. It was a wonderful opportunity for thieves as police couldn’t get around. There was zero visibility. Most ordinary activity came to a halt. At football matches the players couldn’t see the ball and spectators couldn’t see the players or the ball. Many people couldn’t get into work and some worked from home if that was possible. Schools were closed, theatres and cinemas were affected because fog seeped into the buildings and audiences couldn’t see. Fog also seeped into people’s houses. The police used fog sticks so they didn’t fall into a river. Clothes were blackened with soot. Even with lamps people couldn’t see. Doctors were in demand but struggled to make home visits because of the fog.
Colin played us an interview with Rosemary Merrit. Her father suffered from bronchitis and his breathing became very difficult. She sent for the doctor because her father was going blue. The doctor had to walk so it took a long time. Ambulances couldn’t get around. He died. This is an example of the sort of thing that happened. The queues for underground tickets stretched to thousands. Cattle at Smithfield were the first casualties and 13 of them died and lots needed attention from a vet. Sheep and pigs were not affected.
The weather changed after five days and the fog cleared. There had been perpetual twilight for five days. People wrote to government agencies about their experiences. Colin told us that the National Archives are a great source for these. It took some time before the true impact of the fog was known. It had affected the sick and the elderly most. Doctors noticed a high level of mortality in the fog but months passed before the true impact was noticed. The numbers of deaths and respiratory illnesses were up. Many didn’t die during the fog but their lives were massively shortened. The government claimed this was due to flu not the fog. Colin showed a graph showing deaths attributable to the smog. At least 4,000 people were killed by it.
This incident was a wake-up call for a lot of people who became more conscious of the environment. It moved pollution up the political agenda. A report from Portland Down said that masks are useless. McMillan rejected this and three million masks were issued. He said that there would be economic consequences if coal was not exported. Churchill said the fog was a natural occurrence and politicians couldn’t do anything about it. A Clean Air Act was urged by the Beaver committee. Churchill eventually acknowledged that fog was made worse by burning coal. Gerald Nabarro MP sponsored a private members bill which led to the Clean Air Act which was introduced in 1956. Dr. Brian Commins worked for the Air Pollution Unit at The Medical Research Unit at St Bartholomew’s Hospital and has talked about the impact of the smog which is available on the BBC Witness History site. The Clean Air Act said that only smokeless fuels could be used in built up areas. The Act has been updated and parts of it replaced but the principles remain in place. In London air quality has improved dramatically. The Air Pollution Unit was disbanded in the late 60s. It is extremely unlikely there will be an incident like that of 1952 but it is possible.
Four thousand Londoners die of air pollution every year. Air pollution has changed. In the 1940s and 50s it was due to soot and sulphur dioxide. There were not many cars and people mostly walked or cycled. From the 1960s until the 80s it was due to carbon monoxide, lead and ozone which were the problem. From the 1980s to 2000 it was nitrogen dioxide and particulates. There have been changes in travel and transport. In 2014, 50 per cent of cars were diesel. By 2020 this had reduced to 14 per cent. Distances travelled increased 10-fold and walking decreased.
The impacts of poor air quality are many. It affects the birth rate, decreased lung capacity, reduction in cognitive ability, risk of chronic disease, premature death and dementia. In 2020, a coroner said that Ella Kissi-Debrah had been exposed to excessive levels of pollution in London before she died and air pollution was put on her death certificate. Colin said that the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) will save lives and the wider area it covers the more lives will be saved.
In 1661, John Evelyn wrote an essay Fumifugium that he sent to Charles II. In it he discussed London’s air pollution problems. His suggestions for a solution were excellent but ignored. The UN adopted a resolution in 2023 that declared access to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment to be a universal human right. The WHO (World Health Organisation) has said that 7 million people a year die prematurely from the effects of outdoor and household air pollution.